Harrison's Bird Food.
What You need to know
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Bird Lighting

Combat avian disease by fighting malnutrition

90% of avian disease is linked to malnutrition. Many diets contain food items of the wrong type, resulting in a lack of essential nutrients or, equally importantly, an excess of potentially harmful ones. Even offering a mix of foods can be flawed as many birds have the habit of buffet feeding, and will pick certain items from the bowl and not get the full range of foods necessary to get a nutritional balance.

This nutritional imbalance can cause minor ailments, but can also bring about fatal diseases. Birds fed on an inadequate diet may survive, but they certainly will not thrive.

Harrison's Bird Foods were developed by esteemed American avian veterinarian Greg Harrison to meet the needs of the modern educated bird owner who knows the importance of a formulated diet in preventing malnutrition and combating disease and death in companion birds.

Bird Lighting.
How important is it?

ARCADIA LIGHTING FOR BIRDS

Why a dedicated bird lamp?…

Unlike humans, birds can see the UV light that is a part of natural sunlight. The bird uses this UV light for behaviours such as reproduction and feeding - life without UV would be the equivalent of humans seeing everything in black and white, only worse. Without UV we are able to recognise the sex of another. In some breeds, birds require UV to differentiate the sexes.

Where a bird is not kept outside, UV light should be provided. Normal domestic lighting does not do this. Most domestic lights distort the natural colour of the bird. The Arcadia Bird Lamp has been designed to provide the correct level of UV for the bird, and show off its true colours.

What do we mean by full spectrum light?

By full spectrum, we mean a balanced light output across the full spectrum, including the UV segment. Many modern triphosphor tubes have three peaks of energy that match the three colours that our eyes perceive.

Thus the tube's effective output is maximised to the human eye, and the tube will appear very bright. These peaks do not necessarily match the avian eye, and there would be no UV present.

The true full spectrum tube offers a balanced spectrum, with the gaps between the triphosphor peaks being filled in with light emitted from a halo phosphate mixture. In addition, UV emitting phosphors have been added, which give account for some 15% of the tube's output. This is split into 12% UVA and 2.4% UVB.

The overall colour of the tube's light output should be close to that of natural sunlight, which is 5,500K. The Arcadia Bird Lamp is very close to this at 5,600K. For birds, a colour temperature of higher than 5,800K is not suitable. Overloading the blue spectrum produces primarily female offspring. For this reason aquarium lamps should be avoided for bird use.Full spectrum light should also produce accurate colour rendition. The Arcadia Bird Lamp achieves this, with a Class 1A specification.

The importance of full spectrum light

Without a balanced source of light, the oculo-endocrine cycle (light to the pituitary and pineal gland) is affected. This affects every aspect of a bird's life. Skewed lighting can result in agitation, picking behaviours, weakness, breeding problems, and metabolic disorders.

Vitamin D3 synthesis

Vitamin D3 is required by birds for healthy bone development.

Many species can synthesize vitamin D3 from sunlight through their skin. Specifically, it is the UVB light within the spectrum that enables D3 synthesis.

As birds are covered in feathers, they are unable to use their skin in this way. In most birds, the preen gland collects the precursor D3 from the bloodstream, and concentrates it in the gland oils. These are then exposed to UVB light by the bird spreading the gland oils on to its feathers during preening. The bird then ingests the UV exposed material when it preens itself again, and oil enters the body as previtamin D. The liver and kidney then convert this to vitamin D3.

How a bird's visual system differs from the human system

The retina of the eye contains cones, which, when stimulated by different wavelengths of light, transmit colour information to the brain. In a human, there are three types of cones, enabling us to perceive three primary colours: red, green and blue. This is known as trichromatic vision. The combination of these colours enables us to perceive thousands of different colours.

Birds have a fourth cone, which is sensitive to UV light, and can perceive four primary colours, the additional colour being UV. This is known as tetrachromatic vision.

In humans, UV light is unable to pass through the lens of the eye, but the bird has no such limitation.

The latest research has discovered that some birds can even see five primary colours (i.e. have pentachromatic vision), being able to differentiate between two different wavelengths of UV.

The effect of daylight hours on a bird

Birds perceive light in two ways. Firstly, through the eye. The retina of the eye is capable of transmitting information about the intensity, colour composition, and polarisation (direction) of light. This information travels in two directions; to the brain via the optic nerve, and through a special pathway to the pituitary gland.
Birds have an additional way of perceiving light, a special gland which surrounds the eye, called the Harderian Gland. This gland measures the duration of light a bird experiences, known as the photoperiod, and passes this information onto the pineal gland.

Both the pituitary gland and the pineal gland act as regulators to the endocrine system and thus effect the whole metabolism of the bird.

To ensure that the bird's health is optimised, your lighting should be turned on one hour after sunrise and turned off one hour before sunset. This may be facilitated by using a timer. Thus the natural annual cycle of daylight is maintained, and the bird's natural cycle for reproductive conditions, and consequently feathering cycle, is maintained.

Breeders will be aware that breeding behaviours can be induced by artificially extending the photoperiod to 14-16 hours. In most cases this should be done gradually. Where this fails, a sudden increase may work.

The importance of UV to the bird

A bird kept inside may well be deprived of UV light. Sunlight passing through a window would have had most of its UV filtered out. In addition, normal domestic light sources do not emit UV. Thus, there is a definite need to add UV light, and the Arcadia Bird Lamp does this.

Birds' feathers reflect UV light. This reflection of the plumage plays a role in the sexual selection of birds. Breeding should be more successful with UV present.

Birds such as mynah birds that appear black to the human eye will appear multi coloured to the avian eye. The same would apply to some white birds.

UV perception plays a significant role in the selective intake of food. Ripe fruit and berries appear as a different colour to a bird. Pollinating flowers include UV reflections, assisting the bird to home in. What a bird sees affects its appetite. Reds are redder and greens are greener with UV. A reluctant feeder needs UVA light to stimulate its appetite.

UV for navigation

UV perception is used by birds for their navigation. Through the polarization of sunlight, a bird can tell which direction the light is coming from. This enables them to fly in the right direction.

Tips on use

Do not use a glass or protective lens between the lamp and the bird - this will reduce the UV light that your bird needs.

It is important that the Bird Lamp is replaced each year. UV phosphors deteriorate at three times the speed of visible light phosphors. The human eye cannot see this reduction but the lamp will be ineffective after one year's use.

Do not rely on lighting to provide all the vitamin D3 that your bird needs. Your bird's diet should also be appropriate.

Suspend the tube or tubes 12"to 18" above the top of the cage. An Arcadia reflector will ensure that all the light goes downward.

The addition of an Arcadia Reflector above the lamp will ensure that all the light is focused downwards and the intensity of the light is increased.

The suitability of other light sources for birds

Incandescent bulbs, including neodymium types do not emit UV and thus are not suitable for birds. Lamps high in UVB, such as reptile lamps, can cause cataracts, and should be avoided for bird use. Aquarium lamps do not offer the correct red blue ratio, and again should be avoided.

The main benefits are…

• The bird's general wellbeing

• Better breeding behaviour

• For displaying show birds

Basic Bird First Aid

Basic First Aid Kit For Your Bird
Always have a basic first aid kit to hand. It should contain a few simple things that will be useful should your bird become injured. We always recommend that if your bird has any type of injury, that it is taken to a vet as soon as possible.
These are the basic minimum items that should be at hand in case of an emergency:
1. A substance to stop bleeding (Cornflour is good for this, however there are proprietary brands available in all good pet shops.)
2. A bird safe disinfectant (Such as Avisafe)
3. Cotton wool balls or cotton buds.
4. Tweezers and sharp scissors
5. Savlon cream (The ONLY human medication that can safely be used on a bird)
6. A soft, dark, non striped towel, for restraining an injured bird. (A light, striped towel would represent a preditor to the bird.)
7. De-stressant / Shock medication
8. Probiotics / White cell support / Electorlytes
9. Heat source (Heat lamp to help with shock.)
10. Pen light
11. Bandage material (½ Inch masking tape or micro-pore tape.)
12. Nail clippers
13. Eye dropper (This must be well cleansed if it has been used for other purposes!)
14. Important Telephone numbers (i.e. Vets, Taxi companies)
15. A suitable sized bird carrier (Even if your bird is trained to travel on your shoulder, a carrier should be available incase the bird is physically injured or in shock!)
Do NOT bathe the bird.
A sick bird needs warmth, darkness and a quiet atmosphere.
DO NOT HESITATE TO TAKE YOUR BIRD(S) TO THE VETS IF YOU SUSPECT THAT THE BIRD IS ILL. OFTEN WITH BIRDS TIME IS OF THE ESSENCE. THE ABOVE LISTS ARE TO BE USED AS AN EMERGENCY MEASURE AND NOT AS A FORM OF CURE FOR A SICK BIRD!

Bird Feathers: Anatomy & Molting

Feathers evolved from the scales of reptiles, and set birds apart from all other animals. Feathers are necessary for flight, insulation, and courtship displays. Feather colors and shapes help us distinguish between different species of birds and, in some cases, between males and females. Because feathers are so different, there are many different anatomical and technical terms used in their descriptions. This article will help you learn some of this terminology and understand more about these amazing adaptations.

Feather anatomy

anatomy of a feather including the vane and calamus Feathers are made out of keratin, the same protein found in hair and nails. Feathers have a central shaft. The smooth, unpigmented base, which extends under the skin into the feather follicle, is called the calamus. The portion above the skin, from which the smaller barbs or branches extend, is termed the rachis or scapus. On each side of the rachis there is a set of filaments, called barbs, which come off at approximately a 45º angle. This portion of the feather that has barbs is called the vane. In the larger feathers, these barbs have two sets of microscopic filaments called barbules. Barbules from one barb cross the adjacent barbs at a 90º angle. Barbules, in turn, have hooklets, sometimes called hamuli or barbicels, which hook the barbules together, like a zipper, forming a tight, smooth surface. These maintain the shape of the feather. Without these strong linkages, the feather would not be able to withstand the air resistance during flight. The barbs or hooklets may become separated from each other; if this occurs, the bird can reattach them while preening. At the base of the feathers, there are often barbs that are not hooked together. These are called downy barbs.

microscopic anatomy of a feather showing barbules and hooklets Feathers with barbules and hooklets are termed "pennaceous," and one can think of them as the feathers that would be used for a quill pen. Feathers without barbules and hooklets, such as down feathers, are called "plumaceous" and have more the appearance of a plume. Some feathers have both pennaceous and plumaceous portions. Some feathers have what are called afterfeathers, or hypopenae, at the base of the vane in an area called the distal umbilicus. These, really, are barbs without hooks, which help trap air and offer some insulation.

Feathers are not arranged haphazardly on the bird, but in major distinct tracts called pterylae. The featherless areas between the pterylae are called apteria.

Types of feathers

As there are different types of hair on furred animals, birds have different kinds of feathers, each having a particular function. The types of feathers include:

Feathers with Vanes: Contour and Flight Feathers
Down
Filoplume
Semiplume
Bristle

Contour feathers: Contour feathers cover most of the surface of the bird, providing a smooth appearance. They protect the bird from sun, wind, rain, and injury. Often, these feathers are brightly colored and have different color patterns. Contour feathers are divided into flight feathers and those that cover the body.

illustration of a flight feather Flight feathers: Flight feathers are the large feathers of the wing and tail. Flight feathers of the wing are collectively known as the remiges, and are separated into three groups.

The primaries attach to the metacarpal (wrist) and phalangeal (finger) bones at the far end of the wing and are responsible for forward thrust. There are usually 10 primaries and they are numbered from the inside out.

The secondaries attach to the ulna, a bone in the middle of the wing, and are necessary to supply "lift." They are also used in courtship displays. There are usually 10-14 secondaries and they are numbered from the outside in.

illustration of a wing showing flight feathers and coverts The flight feathers closest to the body are sometimes called tertiaries.

The tail feathers, called retrices, act as brakes and a rudder, controlling the orientation of the flight. Most birds have 12 tail feathers.

The bases of the flight feathers are covered with smaller contour feathers called coverts. There are several layers of coverts on the wing. Coverts also cover the ear.

illustration of a down feather Down feathers: Down feathers are small, soft, fluffy, and are found under the contour feathers. They are plumaceous, and have many non-interlocking barbs, lacking the barbules and hooklets seen in contour and flight feathers. This makes it possible for them to trap air in an insulating layer next to the skin, protecting the bird from heat and cold. They are so efficient, humans use these feathers for insulation, too, in down jackets and comforters.

There are special types of downy feathers called powder down feathers. When the sheaths or barbs of these feathers disintegrate, they form a fine keratin powder, which the bird can spread over its feathers as a water-proofing agent. The powder also assists in cleaning as the bird preens. The absence of powder down in birds such as cockatoos and African greys can be a sign of disease, including beak and feather disease.

illustration of a filoplume feather Filoplumes: Filoplumes are very fine, hair-like feathers, with a long shaft, and only a few barbs at their tips. They are located along all the pyterlae. Although their function is not well understood, they are thought to have a sensory function, possibly adjusting the position of the flight feathers in response to air pressure.

illustration of a semiplume feather Semiplumes: Semiplumes provide form, aerodynamics, and insulation. They also play a role in courtship displays. They have a large rachis, but loose (plumaceous) vanes. They may occur along with contour feathers or in separate pterylae.

illustration of a bristle feather Bristle feathers: Bristle feathers have a stiff rachis with only a few barbs at the base. They are usually found on the head (around the eyelids, nares, and mouth). They are thought to have both a sensory and protective function.

Feather growth

Like hair, feathers develop in a specialized area in the skin called a follicle. As a new feather develops, it has an artery and vein that extends up through the shaft and nourishes the feather. A feather at this stage is called a blood feather. Due to the color of the blood supply, the shaft of a blood feather will appear dark, whereas the shaft of an older, mature feather will be white. A blood feather has a larger quill (calamus) than a mature feather. A blood feather starts out with a waxy keratin sheath that protects it while it grows. When the feather is mature, the blood supply will recede and the waxy sheath will be removed by the bird.

Although an adult bird will typically replace all of its feathers during a molt, the loss of feathers is staggered, often over several months, so the bird has enough feathers for flight and insulation. A molt is usually triggered by the change in day length or may occur after breeding. Some wild birds, such as goldfinches, who molt twice a year, change from a bright plumage during the breeding season to a more somber plumage for the rest of the year.

Feather color

Feather color is determined by the presence of various pigments, including melanins, carotenoids, and porphyrins.

Melanins are brown to black pigments that are also found in mammals. In addition to adding color to the feather, melanins also make the feather denser and more resistant to wear and breakdown by sunlight.
Carotenoids are generally yellow, orange, or red in color. They are synthesized in plants, and absorbed by the bird's digestive system, and then taken up by the cells of the follicle as the feather is developing.
Porphyrins are red and green pigments that are produced by cells in the feather follicle.

The next time you look at a bird, you will be able to better understand how its feathers protect it and make it possible for the bird to fly. Down to the microscopic level, you can appreciate the complexity and specialization that make birds such a unique part of the animal kingdom.

Bird Beaks: Anatomy, Care, and Diseases

A bird's beak, also called the "rostrum," is used for many things from a weapon for enemies, to grooming, to the delicate feeding of a nestling. Beaks can be a combination of strength and sensitivity, strong enough to crack a walnut yet delicate enough to peel a grape.

Anatomy

A bird, like a mammal, has two jaws: the upper is the maxilla and the lower is the mandible. The nostrils, or nares, are located at the junction between the beak and the head. In most parrots, a small, round, brown structure, called the operculum is found inside of the nostril. This is comprised of cartilage and should not be mistaken for an obstruction or foreign body, such as a seed. Some species of birds, such as the parrots, have an area of fleshy tissue that contains the nares. This is called the cere. In budgies, the cere is blue in adult males, and a pinkish brown in females.

The beak is comprised of the jaw bone covered with a lightweight sheath called the rhamphotheca. The rhamphotheca is made of keratin, which is the same substance found in antlers or our fingernails. And like horns or fingernails, the beak is constantly growing. Depending upon the species, a bird's beak grows from one to three inches a year. The portion of the rhamphotheca covering the maxilla is called the rhinotheca, and that covering the mandible is the gnatotheca.

The proximal (closest to the bird) portion of the beak has a blood supply and a significant number of nerve endings. The distal portion (toward the tip) of the beak, like the end of a fingernail, does not sense pain.

Some parrots have file-like ridges crossing the inside of the upper bill. These aid the bird in cracking nuts and hard fruits.

There is a great variation in the size, shape, and strength of beaks. The type of beak a bird has is usually related to the type of food the bird normally eats.

Strong, hook-like beaks, such as those on toucans and parrots, can crack an outer shell of a nut or the tough outer skins of certain fruits.

Short, straight bills are perfect for seed and grub eaters. These include finches and canaries.
Nectar-eating birds, such as hummingbirds, have long, pointed beaks for reaching into the heart of a flower.
Wild birds, such as woodpeckers, have extremely strong, chisel-like beaks.
Water birds, such as cranes, may have long beaks for probing; birds such as ducks and flamingos have flat beaks with special plates called lamellae, which help filter food.
Raptors have hook-like beaks used for tearing food.

Insect-eating birds, such as warblers, have short beaks.

Some birds, such as swifts, have wide mouths, for catching insects while flying.

Signs of a healthy beak

A healthy bird has a healthy beak. And a healthy beak means that your bird will be using it to eat, play, and chew. If your bird's beak is causing him discomfort in some way, he will avoid using it. Signs that your bird's beak is in healthy include:

Smooth, symmetrical appearance
No peeling or unusual textures (Members of the cockatoo family should have fine powder on their beaks, the result of proper grooming of healthy feathers.

No discolored areas

Proper beak length (Check with your regular avian veterinarian to see if the tip of your bird's beak is as short as it should be for her particular species).

Proper alignment of the upper beak and lower beak

Abnormal beak growth and development

The most common beak abnormalities include:

Overgrown beak
Scissors beak
Prognathism or "parrot beak"

Overgrown beak: Either the upper or lower beak may overgrow, though it is far more common for the upper beak to do so. For some normal birds, regular beak trimming is necessary. Other birds may keep their beaks in proper form through eating a hard diet, grooming, climbing, chewing on toys, and rubbing the beak on a slightly abrasive surface. An overgrown beak can be the result of health problems including trauma, developmental abnormalities, nutritional imbalances, polyomavirus-like infection (finches), or liver disease (especially in budgies). See table below.

Treatment consists of trimming the beak to the proper shape and removing any excessive flaking. An overgrown beak is similar to an overgrown fingernail in that the overgrown portion has no sense of pain. The overgrown portion may be safely trimmed back to normal length without causing discomfort to the bird. Beak trimming is best performed by a veterinarian, unless you have considerable experience. If a beak is trimmed too short, it will cause the bird pain, will bleed, and may make it difficult or impossible for a bird to eat. Beak trimming may be performed using manual tools, such as human fingernail clippers and nail files, or side-cutting wire cutters. Some veterinarians prefer to use a Dremel drill grinding stone. In either case, the bird is generally not anesthetized for the procedure.

Scissors beak: Scissors beak is a lateral deviation of the rhinotheca. It is a developmental abnormality that occurs most commonly in cockatoos and macaws. It is thought to be caused by improper temperature during artificial incubation, genetics, or incorrect feeding techniques. Other possible causes include calcium deficiency, trauma, or a viral or mycobacterial infection.

Treatment varies with the severity of the problem and the age of the bird. In young birds with mild deviations, simply applying finger pressure to the appropriate side of the beak for several minutes 2-3 times daily, may correct the problem. In older birds, or those with more severe deviations, an avian veterinarian may need to perform surgery and apply a type of acrylic prosthesis (splint) to correct the abnormal growth.

Prognathism or "Parrot Beak:" Mandibular prognathism occurs when the tip of the rhinotheca rests on or inside the gnatotheca. This developmental abnormality is most commonly seen in cockatoos. The cause of this condition is unknown, and may include genetics, improper incubation, and hand-feeding techniques. It is rarely seen in parent raised birds. It is thought that when parent birds hook onto the chick's rhinotheca during feeding, they help to promote the normal development of the chick's beak.

As with scissors beak, treatment varies with the severity of the condition and the age of the bird. For some chicks, applying finger pressure several times daily may help, as will using a piece of gauze to apply traction to the upper beak during feeding. In an older bird, in which the beak has calcified, treatment generally involves the placement of an acrylic appliance on the beak. The type of appliance varies depending upon the extent of the problem.

At-home beak care

Beak care is critical for the overall health of the bird. The beak is the entry for nutrients, and is used for climbing and playing. We can help promote beak health by ensuring the bird is getting all the nutrients he needs and detecting any problems early. Some at-home care includes:

Daily checking the health of your bird. Look for cracks, overgrowth, or discoloration of the beak.

Consulting an avian veterinarian if you suspect that your bird's beak is growing unevenly. This can indicate underlying problems such as liver or nutritional issues. Your avian veterinarian can determine the reason for the problem as well as trim it to prevent problems with eating or preening.

Providing chewing toys, any toy that a bird has to work at chewing will help keep his beak trim. These include build-your-own toys that you can make by alternating mineral pieces with rope, wooden, blocks, and plastic.

Including different textures of perches, including cement perches specifically made for beak and nail health. Note: Do not use sandpaper perches.

Housing the bird in a proper size cage. Owners of large parrots, especially, need to provide a sturdy cage. Parrot owners we know have come home to a flimsy cage with snapped bars and the soldering (made of toxic lead and zinc in some inexpensive cages) chewed off.

Trauma

Trauma to the beak may occur as the result of fighting, chewing on electric cords, hitting the beak while flying or landing, or having the beak trapped between cage bars or other hard surfaces. Injuries may include fractures, punctures, and avulsions (tearing away of the beak). Injuries to the beak often bleed, and the hemorrhage needs to be stopped (usually with electrocautery. DO NOT use silver nitrate sticks - they are toxic to birds). The wounds must be cleaned and antibiotics and antifungals may need to be given. The beak has nerve endings, and pain or the displacement of the beak may make eating difficult or impossible. All birds with beak injuries should be examined by a veterinarian. Acrylics may be used to repair the beak until new tissue replaces it.

Other beak conditions

There are many diseases and conditions that can affect the health of the beak, as shown in the following table.

Common Beak Lesions
Lesion	Possible Cause	Species
Abnormal growth	Liver disease Knemidocoptes mites Polyomavirus-like infection Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) Vitamin D3 deficiency Soft food Malnutrition Old trauma	Budgies Budgies Finches
Shiny surface to beak (instead of powdery appearance)	Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD)	Cockatoos
Crusty lesions	Avian Pox Knemidocoptes mites Bacterial infection	Amazon parrots Budgies
Soft, pliable beak ("rubber beak")	Calcium or Vitamin D deficiency	Cockatiels
Discoloration	Malnutrition or systemic disease	Toucans and Lorikeets
White lesions in mouth, excess mucus, swelling	Candida infection Trichomonas infection Bacterial infection Vitamin A deficiency
Sunken, irregular lesions	Old trauma Aspergillus infection Candida infection Bacterial infection PBFD
Ulcerative lesions at beak junction	Avian Pox Trichomonas	Cockatiels

Respiratory System of Birds: Anatomy and Function

Differences between avian and mammalian respiration

Respiration in birds is much different than in mammals.

Birds have a larynx, but it is not used to make sounds. Instead, an organ termed the "syrinx" serves as the "voice box."
Birds have lungs, but they also have air sacs. Depending upon the species, the bird has seven or nine air sacs. The air sacs include:
- Two posterior thoracic
- Two abdominal
- Two anterior thoracic
- Two cervical (these are not present in some species)
- One interclavicular
Air Sacs of a Bird
The air sacs of birds extend into the humerus (the bone between the shoulder and elbow), the femur (the thigh bone), the vertebrae and even the skull.
Birds do not have a diaphragm; instead, air is moved in and out of the respiratory system through pressure changes in the air sacs. Muscles in the chest cause the sternum to be pushed outward. This creates a negative pressure in the air sacs, causing air to enter the respiratory system. Expiration is not passive, but requires certain muscles to contract to increase the pressure on the air sacs and push the air out. Because the sternum must move during respiration, it is essential that it is allowed to move freely when a bird is being restrained. Holding a bird "too tight" can easily cause the bird to suffocate.
Because birds have air sacs that reach into the bones, and have no diaphragm, respiratory infections can spread to the abdominal cavity and bones.
Bird lungs do not expand or contract like the lungs of mammals. In mammalian lungs, the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in microscopic sacs in the lungs, called 'alveoli.' In the avian lung, the gas exchange occurs in the walls of microscopic tubules, called 'air capillaries.'
The respiratory system of birds is more efficient than that of mammals, transferring more oxygen with each breath. This also means that toxins in the air are also transferred more efficiently. This is one of the reasons why fumes from teflon are toxic to birds, but not to mammals at the same concentration.
When comparing birds and mammals of similar weight, birds have a slower respiratory rate.
Respiration in birds requires two respiratory cycles (inspiration, expiration, inspiration, expiration) to move the air through the entire respiratory system. In mammals, only one respiratory cycle is necessary.

Respiratory cycle of a bird

Respiratory Cycle of a Bird

During the first inspiration, the air travels through the nostrils, also called nares, of a bird, which are located at the junction between the top of the upper beak and the head. The fleshy tissue that surrounds them, in some birds, is called the cere. As in mammals, air moves through the nostrils into the nasal cavity. From there it passes through the larynx and into the trachea. Air moves through the trachea to the syrinx, which is located at the point just before the trachea divides in two. It passes through the syrinx and then the air stream is divided in two as the trachea divides. The air does not go directly to the lung, but instead travels to the caudal (posterior) air sacs. A small amount of air will pass through the caudal air sacs to the lung.
During the first expiration, the air is moved from the posterior air sacs through the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi into the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide into smaller diameter air capillaries. Blood capillaries flow through the air capillaries and this is where the oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.
When the bird inspires the second time, the air moves to the cranial air sacs.
On the second expiration, the air moves out of the cranial air sacs, through the syrinx into the trachea, through the larynx, and finally through the nasal cavity and out of the nostrils.

Bird Droppings: The Importance of Daily Observation in Early Identification of Problems

Since birds are closer to the wild state than most other pets, and are often the prey of other animals, they are good at masking signs of illness. Unfortunately, this may delay diagnosis of problems, so bird owners must be creative in observing their bird's condition. One quick health indicator is a bird's droppings. Daily inspection of cage papers may be able to tell you if your bird is stressed or becoming ill, alerting you in timely fashion to the need for corrective care.

The digestive system of your bird is physically simple and efficient. From consumption to elimination, the digestive process takes less than a day; thus droppings can provide you with information you can correlate with recent meals, activities, or events. Become familiar with the appearance of your bird's normal droppings, and if something is amiss, you can quickly spot abnormalities and bring them to your veterinarian's attention.

Droppings have three components: feces, urine, and urates.

Feces are the solid waste from the bird's digestive system.
As in mammals, urine is produced by the kidneys.
Avian kidneys also produce urates, which are concentrated uric acid (a waste product from the breakdown of proteins).

Bird Droppings Should Be Inspected Daily for:

Color
Texture
Moisture content
Number

Feces, urine, and urates are all combined at the cloaca, the end of the bird's digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. The three waste products are usually evacuated together as one dropping. Changes in any one of the components can offer clues to your bird's condition.

Droppings age quickly, though, and as they age, they intermingle, making them more difficult to inspect correctly.

What is normal?

The droppings of each species vary. Factors such as diet and age also come into play. Frequent elimination is normal – inspection of droppings over several days will define what is normal for your particular bird. Other characteristics of normal droppings are:

Droppings should be odorless.
Feces should be firm and dark brown or green in color, depending upon the species of bird and the diet. If the staple diet is seed, feces will be dark green; while if the staple diet is pelleted food, it will take on the color of the pellets. When feces dry, they often look black.
Urine should be clear.
Urates should be creamy-white, opaque, and almost chalky in appearance.

Budgerigars (parakeets) normally produce 35-50 droppings per day, while larger birds produce less. Nectar-feeding birds, such as lories and lorikeets, will have large numbers of more liquid droppings.

What is abnormal?

You need to be able to distinguish between a temporary change and, for example, a bout of diarrhea. Also, watch for changes in color, volume, consistency, and number of droppings.

Some abnormal signs include:

Feces light in color, mustard yellow, rusty brown, or containing blood
Unusually large feces or feces that are coarse-textured, watery, or mushy
Feces that contain undigested food or have a foul odor
Urine with any color at all
Urates that are yellow or green
Any significant increase or decrease in the number of droppings

To avoid misinterpreting signs, take your bird's recent meals into account. Blueberries or beets will significantly alter the color of feces. A diet high in moisture, such as fruits and vegetables, will increase urine output.

Other signs of illness

If changes in droppings do occur, be on the lookout for other telltale signs of illness such as:

Lethargy
Not eating
Sitting low or huddled, with or without ruffled feathers
Rattled, wheezy, or open-mouth breathing

If your bird exhibits any of these symptoms, contact your avian veterinarian immediately. If you need to take your bird in for an exam, be sure to bring along the cage papers, so the veterinarian can examine the droppings, as well.

Interesting Bird Facts

Some interesting facts about birds:

The oldest bird was known as an Archaeopteryx and lived about 150 million years ago. It was the size of a raven, was covered with feathers, and had wings.
The most yolks ever found in a single chicken's egg is nine.
An ostrich egg needs to be boiled for 2 hours to get a hard-boiled egg.
The Royal Albatross' eggs take 79 days to hatch.
The egg of the hummingbird is the world's smallest bird's egg; the egg of the ostrich, the world's largest.
The now-extinct elephant bird of Madagascar laid an egg that weighed 27 pounds.
Precocial birds like chickens, ostriches, ducks, and seagulls hatch ready to move around. They come from eggs with bigger yolks than altricial birds like owls, woodpeckers, and most small songbirds that need a lot of care from parents in order to survive.
Air sacs may make up 1/5 of the body volume of a bird.
A bird's normal body temperature is usually 7-8 degrees hotter than a human's. Up to three-quarters of the air a bird breathes is used just for cooling down since they are unable to sweat.
A bird's heart beats 400 times per minute while resting and up to 1000 beats per minute while flying.
The world's only wingless bird is the kiwi of New Zealand.
Migrating ducks and geese often fly in V-shape formations. Each bird flies in the upwash of its neighbor's beating wings and this extra bit of supporting wind increases lift, thereby saving energy.
Falcons can swoop at over 200 mph.
Penguins, ostriches, and dodo birds are all birds that do not fly.
Hummingbirds eat about every ten minutes, slurping down twice their body weight in nectar every day.
The homing pigeon, Cher Ami, lost an eye and a leg while carrying a message in World War I. Cher Ami won the Distinguished Service Cross. Its leg was replaced with a wooden leg.
The only known poisonous bird in the world is the hooded pitohui of Papua, New Guinea. The poison is found in its skin and feathers.
The American turkey vulture helps human engineers detect cracked or broken underground fuel pipes. The leaking fuel smells like vulture food (they eat carrion), and the clustered birds show repair people where the lines need fixing.